The History and Applications For Platinum By Jude Sutton

History

Naturally occurring platinum and platinum rich alloys have been known about for centuries. Though the metal was used by pre-Columbian Native Americans (Aztec, Mayan, Inca, Moche, Chibcha, and Canaras), the first European reference to platinum appears in 1557 in the writings of the Italian humanist Julius Caesar Scaliger (1484-1558) as a description of a mysterious metal found in Central American mines between Darién (Panama) and Mexico ("up until now impossible to melt by any of the Spanish arts"). The word platinum comes from the Spanish word platina, meaning "little silver."

Platinum was discussed by astronomers Antonio de Ulloa and Don Jorge Juan y Santacilia (1713-1773), both appointed by King Philip V to join a geographical expedition in Peru that lasted from 1735 to 1745. Amongst other things, Ulloa observed the platina del pinto, the unworkable metal found with gold. British privateers intercepted Ulloa's ship on the return voyage. Though he was well treated in England, and even made a member of the Royal Society he was prevented from publishing a reference to the unknown metal until 1748. Before that could happen Charles Wood independently isolated the element in 1741. Major finds were discovered in Russia in 1819, which produced around 90% of the global Platinum production at the turn of the 20th century.

Due to its rarity, greater difficulty to work with and the need to alloy it with (at the time) an even more expensive metal iridium, platinum was only used in a limited way in jewelry at the end of the 19th century. This changed at beginning of the 20th century when most diamond ring mountings and most exclusive jewelry were almost completely made of platinum. From 1875 to 1960 the SI ( from the French Le Système International d'Unités) unit of length the metric standard metre was defined as the distance between two lines on a standard bar of an alloy of ninety percent platinum and ten percent iridium, measured at 0° Celsius.

Platinum is a chemical element with the atomic symbol (Pt) and an atomic number of 78. It is in group 10 of the Periodic Table of Elements. A heavy, malleable, ductile, precious, gray-white transition metal, platinum is resistant to corrosion and occurs in some nickel and copper ores along with some native deposits. Platinum is used in jewelry, laboratory equipment, electrical contacts, dentistry, computer chip, and automobile emissions control devices. Platinum bullion has the ISO currency code of XPT. As of June 24, 2008, Platinum was worth $2,032 per troy ounce approximately $65 per gram.

When pure, the metal appears greyish-white and firm. The metal is corrosion resistant. The catalytic properties of the six platinum family metals are outstanding. For this catalytic property, platinum is used in catalytic converters, incorporated in automobile exhaust systems, as well as tips of spark plugs. Platinum has a cubic crystal structure.

Platinum's wear and tarnish resistance characteristics are well suited for making fine jewelry. Platinum is more precious than gold. The price of platinum changes along with its availability, but its price is normally more than twice the price of gold. In the 18th century, platinum's rarity made King Louis XV of France declare it the only metal fit for a king. Platinum possesses high resistance to chemical attack, excellent high temperature characteristics, and stable electrical properties. All these properties have been exploited for industrial applications. Platinum does not generally oxidize in air at any temperature, but can be corroded by cyanides, halogens, sulfur, and caustic alkalis. This metal is insoluble in hydrochloric and nitric acid, but does dissolve in the mixture known as aqua regia, forming chloroplatinic acid. When crude platinum is dissolved in aqua regia, gold is removed from the solution as a precipitate by treatment with iron chloride. The platinum is precipitated out as impure on treatment with ammonium chloride, leaving H2PdCl4 in solution.

Common oxidation states of platinum include +2, and +4. The +1 and +3 oxidation states are less common, and are often stabilized by metal bonding in bimetallic or polymetallic species.

Applications:

Platinum is an extremely rare metal, occurring as only 0.003 ppb in the Earth's crust, and is 30 times rarer than gold. If all the world's platinum reserves were poured into one Olympic-size swimming pool, it would be just deep enough to cover one's ankles. Gold would fill more than three such pools.

In 2006, the world supply of Platinum was about 217,700 kg, or 7 million Troy ounces.

In 2007, global supplies of 6.5 million ounceswere more than matched by the demand of 7.03 Million ounces.

It is used in the following industries as well as others:

* As a catalyst in the catalytic converter, an optional (though often mandatory by law) component of the gasoline fueled automobile exhaust system (see "Notable characteristics" in this article).

* As a catalyst in fuel cells. Reducing the amount of platinum required (and thus cost) is a major focus of fuel cell research.

* Certain platinum containing compounds are capable of crosslinking DNA and kill cells by similar pathways to alkylating chemotherapeutic agents. Cisplatin, carboplatin and oxaliplatin are licensed examples of this class of drugs.

* Platinum resistance thermometers.

* Electrodes for use in electrolysis and electrochemical measurements (e.g., the standard hydrogen electrode).

* In the Clark polarographic electrode for measuring oxygen tension. A wide range of jewelry. * As a catalyst in the curing of silicone elastomers. * As a catalyst in glow plugs in some model engines.

* In crucibles, alloyed with rhodium (10-40% of Rh), for high temp melting around 1500° C of glass.

* In photography, it is sometimes used for archival printmaking. Platinum prints display a greater range of tones than other Black and White printing methods. Additionally platinum's chemical stability makes for extremely long-lasting prints. The problem with this method, in addition to the high cost, is that platinum is less light sensitive and prints must be contact printed at the same size as the negative. Therefore, enlargements can only be made by making an enlarged negative. Platinum salts alone generally create excessive contrast in prints; combined with salts from its sister metal, palladium, produce warmer and softer tones, without diminishing the tonal range platinum enables.

* In watchmaking, Vacheron Constantin, Patek Philippe, Rolex, Breitling and other companies use platinum for producing their limited edition watch series. Watchmakers highly appreciate the unique properties of platinum as it neither tarnishes nor wears out.

Jude Sutton is the Wylie Texas Community Partner at Cagora.com http://wylie.cagora.com/overview/intro

You can get further information on Investing in Silver at http://Silver-Investor.com

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Catalytic Converter Failure: Now What? By Matthew Keegan

An important device that is standard equipment on vehicles built since 1975 is the catalytic converter. This part, when properly working, will significantly reduce pollutants from your engine before they leave your exhaust. A catalytic converter is essential toward promoting overall environmental cleanliness; most state auto inspection stations will check to see if yours is working as part of their regular inspection of your vehicle. If your vehicle fails inspection your catalytic converter may need to be replaced. Let’s take a look at what a catalytic converter does and how you can save money in replacing one should it fail.

As your engine burns fuel, it produces environmentally harmful gases. These gases, if not handled properly, will leave your car’s exhaust and work harm on the environment. The Environmental Protection Agency, established in 1970, began to require that cars come equipped with devices to reduce harmful emissions. Thus, the catalytic converter was born.

The catalytic converter in your vehicle is installed in the exhaust line between the exhaust manifold and the muffler. Pellets inside the converter work to change the harmful gases into harmless gases before they leave the tailpipe and out into the open air. Thus, a properly functioning catalytic converter is essential toward maintaining good air quality.

Signs of a deteriorating catalytic converter include the following:

Rusted or broken converter body or end tubes.

Bits of substrate in other sections of the exhaust system.

No rattle detected in a pellitized converter (If the converter doesn't rattle, the pellets may have melted together or fallen out).

A rattle detected in a monolithic converter (A rattle in this kind of converter indicates the substrate has separated.)

In each case the diagnosis is for you to replace your catalytic converter immediately.

Whether you are purchasing a Ford catalytic converter or a BMW catalytic converter it does help to shop around. While some people turn to manufacturers to find replacement parts, ordering through online shops such as Car Parts Stuff can result in significant savings for you. In addition, the information provided online will go far toward helping you decide which product is right for your car.

Matthew Keegan is The Article Writer who writes on a variety of social, human interest, as well as business related topics. You can preview samples from his high performing site at http://www.thearticlewriter.com

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How to Find the Cheapest Scrap Platinum By Joelyn Pullano

The oldest record of platinum use is as an inlay in ancient Egypt. However, the Egyptians though it was a variation of electrum, (a natural blend of gold and silver.) Native Americans used it for centuries in small decorative objects. Platinum was unknown to Europeans until Spanish discovered it in Columbia. The Spanish called it platina, meaning little silver. It was not identified as a new metal until the 1700's. The metal was introduced into Europe from South America in the middle of the eighteenth century. It is always found in association with other metals, chiefly Rhodium, Osmium, Iridium, Palladium.

Platinum is one of the rarest and purest precious metals in the world. The perfect jewelry material for these fortuitous times, Platinum is regarded by many as a "new" metal. Platinum has been held in high regard as a symbol of wealth and nobility, the true worth of Platinum was underappreciated until the eighteenth century, when the Europeans began to recognize Platinum's beauty. As a matter of fact, France's Louis XVI proclaimed it the only metal fit for royalty. Legendary jewelers such as Cartier, Faberge and Tiffany created their timeless designs in platinum. The world's famous diamonds, including the Hope and Koh-l-Noor, are secured permanently in platinum.

Platinum reached its peak of popularity in the early 1900s, when it was the preferred metal for all fine jewelry in America. It dominated the world of jewelry design during the Edwardian era, the Art Deco period and well into the 1930s. At the onset of World War II, however, the U.S. government declared platinum a 'strategic' metal and its use in non-military applications, including jewelry, was banned.

Very few countries have platinum supplies, with South Africa (80%) and Russia (11%) accounting for approximately 90% of the world's supply. The yearly production from these mines is only 150 tons, which is 1/25 of the yearly production of gold. Moreover, the amount of platinum that can be produced from raw ore is relatively small. To make a single small ring of approximately 3 grams requires approximately 1 ton of raw ore.

Today, platinum is much more valuable than gold. Although it is used in many industrial applications, including the automotive industry, platinum jewelry consistently commands higher prices than even pure gold because of its rarity.

Two of the best ways to find the cheapest scrap platinum is through catalytic converters and scrap platinum jewelry. Due to the prices of platinum being so high as of late, a lot of people are becoming victims of thieves who steal their catalytic converters. It used to be you had to worry about your rims, stereos and gps systems, well not anymore.

A catalytic converter is used to reduce the toxicity of emissions from an internal combustion engine. They were first introduced on cars in the US market for the 1975 model year to comply with tightening EPA regulations on auto exhaust. Each catalytic converter contains between three and seven grams of platinum. Not a bad catch if you can find one legally. Catalytic converters are also used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, trains, and other engine-equipped machines.

From the scrap yards, the converters make their way into the metal-recycling industry, where the platinum and other precious elements, including palladium and rhodium, are removed and used to build high-tech machinery, including more catalytic converters.

Although it is being brought to the forefront thanks to thieves stealing the catalytic converters, platinum still seams to be the big unknown in scrap metal. Some great places to find old catalytic converters for scarp are the local junk yards, online classifieds, such as Craiglist, US Freeads and Kiji. Another great place, as usual is Ebay. Some people even find them at flee markets and garage sales. The trick is once you get them, finding refiners that will pay decent scrap metal prices for the platinum. It will be less than what the price of platinum is due to the fact that they have to extract it, that price is passed on to you.

Now there is a second way to find the cheapest scrap platinum and that is through jewelry. Again the best places to find great deals on platinum jewelry is through the flee market and garage sales, followed by Craigslist, Us Freeads, Kiji and Ebay. Or if you are really resourceful you can invest in a metal detector and hope for the best.

What is so great about scrap platinum jewelry? Well, the number of knowledgeable buyers and sellers are low. Most people don't understand that platinum jewelry is 90% platinum and that the other 10% is made up of a platinum group metal. If you call around to your local pawnshops, scrap metal dealers, junk yards, coins shops, and jewelers, you'll find that most of them are paying about the same for platinum jewelry as 14k gold and some may pay close to what they pay for 18k gold. They are taking advantage of most of the sellers out there who just don't understand what they have.

If you find the cheap scrap platinum that you are looking for then your next step is to locate a platinum refiner preferably in your area and get their schedule or purchase prices. Your goal is to locate a refiner who will pay you for the "residual" values in your scrap alloy. The key is that you will need to guarantee that you'll be providing a minimum of 10 to 12 Troy ounces in order to be paid for all your metal rather than just the 90% platinum.

Visit The Scrap Metal Shop for cheap prices on scrap platinum. Article Source: http://EzineArticles.com/?expert=Joelyn_Pullano

Catalytic Converter Hazards! By Matthew Keegan

Government auto emissions control legislation mandates that virtually all cars built or sold in the U.S. come equipped with a catalytic converter. A smart device, catalytic converters help to convert dangerous and polluting exhaust gases into less harmful carbon dioxide and water. As helpful of a device that it is, there are some hazards that come with the use of a catalytic converter. Read on to learn what you need to know about your vehicle's catalytic converter.

Many consider a catalytic converter to be a godsend. With pollution levels ever climbing, the U.S. government acted to reduce harmful pollutants in a step to clean up the environment. The Environmental Protection Agency was formed by the Nixon Administration and the agency was instrumental in passing the Clean Air Act to help America control pollution. Since 1975 virtually every passenger vehicle has come equipped with a catalytic converter.

As helpful as catalytic converters can be, they can be problematic. Besides failure, which generally goes unnoticed until your vehicle flunks its next inspection, it is the intense heat of the unit that can cause problems.

If you work on your own vehicle, you need to let your car cool down completely before working near the exhaust system. Catalytic converters get very hot, as hot as 1800 degrees, and any burn sustained from touching a hot converter can be very dangerous, even deadly.

Motorists have also learned that a catalytic converter can be a fire hazard. For the past three decades police and fire department reports have indicated that many car fires have been started because a motorist parked their car over dry leaves. Even when the engine is off the hot converter can drop a spark which can ignite leaves underneath. If that happens, your car can be engulfed in mere minutes and destroyed by the conflagration.

There are also hazards that occur to the catalytic converter itself. Because the unit burns at such hot temperatures, catalytic converters can suffer rapid thermal deactivation. Some experts suggest switching to synthetic engine oil to help reduce phosphorous contaminants a known contributor to failure.

No, you cannot legally remove your catalytic converter as you may become subject to stiff fines and penalties. Yes, if your car was built before 1975, none of these concerns matter to ou so enjoy your classic and let her rip without pollution controls holding you back!

Copyright 2008-2012 - For additional information regarding Matthew C. Keegan, The Article Writer, please visit his automotive blog for cutting edge car information.

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Jeep and Ford Catalytic Converters By Matthew Keegan

Your vehicle’s catalytic converter plays an essential role in reducing harmful emissions. When your catalytic converter is working properly it successfully changes auto emissions into harmless water vapor. When your catalytic converter is malfunctioning, the pollutants leaving your vehicle can exacerbate local pollution levels.

There are four ways for you to determine whether your catalytic converter needs replacing or not:

1. Busted or rusted out converter body or end tubes.

2. Small pieces of substrate in other areas of the exhaust system.

3. No rattle in a pellitized converter (If the converter does not rattle, the pellets may have melted together or fallen out).

4. A rattle in a monolithic converter (A rattle in this kind of converter indicates the substrate has separated.)

If you are unable to determine failure your state, provincial, or local vehicle inspection program will reveal that to you the next time your car comes up for inspection. If your car fails its inspection, you will have to replace your catalytic converter before you car can be passed.

Replacement of your catalytic converter is a procedure that can be done by professionals such as through your dealer’s service department, through a muffler shop, or by a local garage. If you are handy, you can do the work yourself and save money on parts as well as on labor costs.

Only purchase a catalytic converter that meets or exceeds your vehicle’s OEM specifications. Online retailers, including Car Parts Stuff, carry a huge selection of Jeep and Ford catalytic converters as well as converters for most other cars.

Almost all vehicles have come equipped with catalytic converters, the exception being those vehicles made before 1975. On all later model vehicles, you must have a catalytic converter in place; otherwise you are breaking the law.

If you install an aftermarket exhaust system, only purchase those that leave all emission control equipment in place. Again, driving without a catalytic converter is illegal and the potential harm you create to the atmosphere simply isn't worth it.

Matt Keegan is a contributing writer for Car Parts Stuff, an online supplier of high quality and well priced automobile parts. You can purchase your Jeep Catalytic Converter, Ford Catalytic Converter, or other exhaust parts right online at any time.

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What's a Catalytic Converter? By Jason Moore

Colloquially, a catalytic converter is known as "cat" or "catcon". It is a device that is used to reduce the toxicity of emissions from an internal combustion engine. It was first widely introduced on series-production automobiles in the US market for the 1975 model year to comply with tightening EPA regulations regarding auto exhaust. Car of today may have two or more depending on the engine configuration and manufacturer.

It resembles closely to a muffler in appearance and is located in the exhaust system and has an outer shell that is made up of stainless steel. But its similarity with a muffler ends there as catalytic converters contain a catalyst that is made from a noble metal such as platinum, palladium or rhodium. A catalyst is defined as anything that induces or speeds up a change.

Still commonly used in motor vehicle exhaust systems, catalytic converters are also used on generator sets, forklifts, mining equipment, trucks, buses, trains, and other engine-equipped machines. A catalytic converter yields an environment for a chemical reaction wherein toxic combustion by-products are converted to less-toxic substances, making emissions as clean a possible.

The purpose of a catalytic converter, using its internal catalyst, is to massively minimize the level of harmful emissions in a car's exhaust. These are carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and particulates. All of these emissions are dangerous to health and are environmental hazards. Furthermore, they contribute to the build up of photochemical smog.

A catalytic converter transforms these poisonous gases to harmless carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and water. In simple terms, the catalytic converter can almost be thought of as an engine of its own. The converter uses fuel and oxygen to stop its internal catalyst, which consumes a big portion of the gases flowing through the converter. However, a converter does not eliminate emissions altogether, though it greatly reduces emissions.

Catalytic converters do not require maintenance of their own. This is because their long-term livelihood depends on proper care and maintenance of your vehicle. For instance, if your vehicle starts to run rough, produces smoke from the tailpipe, or the “service engine soon” or “check engine” light appears, have it checked out immediately by a professional technician. This is particularly true if those mentioned lights flash instead of being steadily lit. Taking for granted these warning signs may cause costly damage to the converter, thus, requiring replacement. Symptoms of a faulty or failing converter may include failing an emissions test, unsatisfactory performance, increasingly high engine temperature, and bucking or hesitation.

A catalytic converter is that important in a car. To avoid its expensive repairs, it is wise to properly maintain your car.

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Jason Moore, a 35 year old freelance writer from Austin, Texas. He also works as a marketing analyst for an established auto parts store in the country.

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Why Catalytic Converters Are Totally Unnecessary to Save Gas By Erwin Chua

Cars have been on the spotlight as one of the largest contributors of the world to pollution. Due to the fact that all internal combustion engines produce emission gases that react negatively with the environment, world governments passed laws to regulate this.

Part of the result of this legislation is the requirement of the installation of catalytic converters in all vehicles.

What do catalytic converters do?

The function of a catalytic converter is to reduce the amount of toxic gases spewing into the atmosphere created by internal combustion engines.

It achieves this results by having the burnt gases from an engine interact with substances that will add or take away atoms from it to transform most of the exhaust gases into something less harmful.

Catalytic converters work only when at high temperatures in order to achieve a reaction with the gases and the material in the converter. Because of this catalytic converters are almost useless in the mornings when cars start cold and need to warm up on the road.

How do catalytic converters neutralize dangerous gases?

Within the catalytic converter, two ceramic layers are present, one to reduce and another to oxidize. These layers are then covered with a thin film of rare metal to get the reaction going at high temperature, usually platinum, rhodium and such.

Catalytic converters have the following reactions with emission gases:

-A reducing action, converting nitrogen oxides to nitrogen and oxygen.
-Oxidize carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide; and
-Oxidize unburnt hydrocarbons (partially burnt gas or diesel) to carbon dioxide and water.

Thus far, catalytic converters have been the most widely accepted pollution control device in cars. However, they are totally unnecessary with the recent maturity of alternative fuels such as hydrogen. Also, catalytic converters only work well under certain conditions.

Disadvantages of catalytic converters

Theft magnets. Catalytic converters cost a lot of money to manufacturer due to the rare metals needed to react with the emission gases. And they are easily stolen since they are just under the chassis. Black market converters can save a buyer a lot of money in buying originals.

Works best on a rich burn. Catalytic converters work best only when engines are running a RICH mixture! It's like letting a fox in the hen house so you can have a chance to chase after it!

A majority of cars rolling off the factory are set to run at a "stochiometric" air-fuel balance of 14.7:1. This is not necessarily the best setting but the manufacturer's setting. What most consumers are unaware of is that cars can run quite well on leaner mixtures of 50:1 or even 100:1 with additional cost-effective (cheap) supplementary and safe fuel additives.

So how can I make my car run on less gas and reduced emissions?

There are several ways to make your car run more efficiently AND cost effectively.

Service your car. Make sure you regularly have your car serviced and inspected as per the instructions on your owner's manual.

Check tires. Check tires for pressure and alignment. You can save a lot of money just by making sure the tires are running at the recommended air pressure. Replace tires which are showing wear and tear for safety's sake as well.

Unload unnecessities. Take off the car all items which you consider unnecessary.

Consider alternative fuels. You can use alternate fuels such as a hydrogen-on-demand (HOD) system to supplement. This system creates hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gas on demand from a water medium to mix with the air and fuel in the combustion chamber for better performance.

What does a HOD system do?

Hydrogen when compressed an introduced to an internal combustion engine:

-Releases more energy than ethanol-based mixes, maintaining the overall power of the car
-Completely burns the fuel which gives cleaner emissions
-Raises the octane level of the fuel, preventing knocking, making the engine quieter
-Lowers overall engine temperature slightly
-Requires the engine to use less gas per cycle
-Mileage gains as low as 20% to as high as 70% on the average due to less fuel required by the engine

The results above totally reduces the need to replace the catalytic converter of your car during its life cycle as emissions are drastically reduced when hydrogen is mixed.

Is it safe?

HOD systems generate hydrogen only on demand and are therefore safe. When no electricity is routed through the HOD system, no reaction is generated. No hydrogen is in storage in this system but is kept in medium, which is basically water.

Cost?

Parts are sourced from everyday parts found in hardware shops and basic electronics stores. Total cost for a basic unit can range between $70 to over $200 USD.

What's offered by most HOD enterprises are plans for do-it-yourself systems, with offers to build the system for the consumer if they so wish. This way the customer can opt to build it himself or to buy a unit once the concept is understood after obtaining the plans to prevent fraud.

For more information on HOD systems, increasing fuel economies, and support, please visit the url below.

Erwin Chua MCP, MCDST has been involved with cars since he was 22. In his youth he would take the car out for a ride without a license, and never get caught. He has a still-pending Master of Arts in Philosophy from De La Salle University - Manila after he decided to leave the academe in pursuit of the true Way. Currently, he is based in Penang, Malaysia spending his time working out, tinkering and puttering away on his Toyota, practicing the Way, building web sites, and writing articles on technology, health, nutrition, body conditioning, healing and travel.

For more very useful information on increasing fuel efficiency, mileage, and saving petrol. Visit us at: http://www.savepetrolfast.com

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